Moroccan museums are far more than mere repositories of artifacts; they are vibrant intellectual hubs deeply intertwined with the nation's academic landscape. This powerful, symbiotic relationship forms the bedrock upon which Morocco's rich cultural heritage is preserved, interpreted, and presented to the world. It is a partnership that enriches both museological practices and academic inquiry, fostering a dynamic environment where research informs exhibition and public engagement fuels further study. This article delves into the multifaceted ways in which Moroccan museology and academia collaborate, highlighting the mutual benefits that drive innovation, enhance understanding, and ensure the sustainable future of Morocco's invaluable cultural legacy.

Foundations of Collaboration: Research and Documentation

The very existence and integrity of Moroccan museum collections are deeply indebted to academic research. Universities and research institutions, through their departments of history, archaeology, art history, and anthropology, provide the essential investigative framework that identifies, contextualizes, and interprets the objects housed within museums. Scholars conduct extensive fieldwork, archival research, and material analysis, unearthing new information that breathes life into historical narratives and artistic expressions. Museums, in turn, serve as crucial repositories of this primary data, offering unparalleled access to artifacts, documents, and specimens that fuel further academic inquiry. This continuous exchange between academic discovery and museum stewardship ensures that exhibitions are not only visually engaging but also rigorously accurate and intellectually profound, reflecting the latest scholarly understanding of Morocco's past.

Educational Programs and Curricular Integration

Beyond simply hosting researchers, Moroccan academia actively shapes the future of museology through dedicated educational programs. Universities offer specialized degrees and courses in heritage management, conservation, museography, and cultural studies, equipping students with the theoretical knowledge and practical skills necessary for careers in the museum sector. Museums serve as invaluable practical training grounds, providing internships, apprenticeships, and collaborative projects that bridge the gap between classroom learning and real-world application. This integration of museological practice into academic curricula ensures a steady stream of trained professionals who can adapt to the evolving demands of heritage preservation and presentation. Such collaborations also foster interdisciplinary learning, combining expertise from various fields to address complex challenges in cultural heritage, thereby strengthening the institutional capacity of both sectors.

Exhibiting Scholarship: From Research to Public Display

One of the most visible manifestations of the academic-museological symbiosis is the transformation of scholarly research into compelling public exhibitions. Academics frequently collaborate with museum curators and exhibition designers, serving as expert advisors to shape narratives, select artifacts, and provide the deep contextual understanding that makes exhibits meaningful. This ensures that the stories told within museum walls are not only captivating but also grounded in robust intellectual inquiry. Special exhibitions often emerge directly from groundbreaking academic findings, allowing cutting-edge research to reach a broad audience. Museums become critical platforms for disseminating academic knowledge, making complex historical and cultural insights accessible and engaging for visitors, thus elevating public discourse and appreciation for Moroccan heritage.

Conservation Science and Technical Expertise

The preservation of Morocco's cultural heritage often relies on sophisticated scientific understanding, a domain where academia plays an indispensable role. University science departments, particularly those specializing in chemistry, material science, and engineering, collaborate with museums on advanced conservation research. This includes developing new techniques for artifact stabilization, analyzing the composition of ancient materials, understanding the effects of environmental factors, and researching traditional Moroccan conservation methods. Through joint laboratories and shared expertise, museums benefit from scientific innovation while academics gain access to unique materials for study. This partnership ensures that conservation practices are informed by the latest scientific advancements, safeguarding delicate artifacts for future generations and contributing to a global body of knowledge in heritage science.

Digital Humanities and Innovation

In the era of digital transformation, the collaboration between Moroccan museology and academia is driving significant innovation in cultural heritage access and preservation. Universities provide expertise in digital humanities, computer science, and information technology, partnering with museums to digitize collections, develop virtual exhibitions, and create sophisticated digital archives. This includes establishing metadata standards, implementing digital preservation strategies, and designing user-friendly online platforms that extend the reach of Moroccan museums far beyond their physical walls. These joint ventures not only make heritage accessible to a global audience but also open new avenues for research, allowing scholars to analyze vast datasets and explore new methodologies for understanding cultural phenomena, thus ensuring the relevance and dynamism of Moroccan heritage in the digital age.

Policy Formulation and Advocacy

The academic sector contributes significantly to shaping cultural heritage policy, working hand-in-hand with museological institutions to advocate for stronger protections and more effective management strategies. Researchers conduct studies on the economic impact of cultural tourism, the legal frameworks governing heritage preservation, and the socio-cultural value of museums, providing evidence-based insights that inform policy decisions. This collaborative approach ensures that cultural policies are not only well-intentioned but also grounded in expert knowledge and practical experience. Through joint reports, conferences, and advocacy campaigns, museums and universities collectively champion the cause of Moroccan heritage, influencing national strategies for cultural development and ensuring that heritage remains a priority on the national agenda.

Community Engagement and Local Knowledge Systems

While museums are custodians of material culture, academia often provides the theoretical frameworks and methodologies for effectively engaging with local communities and integrating their invaluable intangible heritage. Scholars in anthropology and ethnography collaborate with museums to document traditional knowledge, oral histories, and community practices, ensuring that these living aspects of Moroccan culture are recognized and preserved. This involves participatory research projects where communities contribute directly to the interpretation and presentation of heritage, ensuring authenticity and relevance. Museums become venues for sharing local perspectives, while academic research provides the tools to systematically record and understand these diverse knowledge systems, fostering a deeper, more inclusive understanding of Moroccan identity and cultural diversity.

Global Networks and International Partnerships

The collaboration between Moroccan museology and academia extends beyond national borders, fostering significant international partnerships. Joint research projects with foreign universities and cultural institutions enhance Moroccan scholarship and bring global perspectives to local heritage. These collaborations often involve exchange programs for students and professionals, co-organized conferences, and shared publications that contribute to the global discourse on heritage studies, conservation, and cultural diplomacy. By leveraging academic connections, Moroccan museums gain access to international expertise, funding, and platforms, elevating the profile of Moroccan cultural heritage on the world stage and positioning Morocco as a key contributor to global cultural understanding and research.

The symbiotic relationship between Moroccan museology and academia is an indispensable force driving the preservation, interpretation, and dynamic presentation of the nation's cultural heritage. This profound partnership enriches both fields, fostering an environment of continuous learning, innovation, and dedicated stewardship. From informing exhibitions with rigorous research to training the next generation of heritage professionals, and from pioneering conservation science to shaping national policy, the mutual benefits are undeniable. As Morocco looks to the future, the continued strengthening of this collaboration will undoubtedly ensure that its rich cultural legacy remains vibrant, accessible, and a source of national pride and global fascination.

Morocco, a land of vibrant cultures and ancient traditions, offers an unparalleled canvas for the discerning traveler. While the allure of bustling souks and majestic landscapes often defines the Moroccan experience, a growing philosophy of travel – 'slow tourism' – invites visitors to transcend superficial encounters and delve into the soul of a destination. This intentional approach, characterized by a leisurely pace, meaningful interactions, and a deep appreciation for local heritage, finds its perfect partner in Morocco's diverse network of museums. Far from mere repositories of artifacts, Moroccan museums are dynamic cultural hubs, meticulously designed to unlock the country's profound historical narratives, artistic legacies, and societal values. They present an opportunity to pause, reflect, and truly connect with the essence of Moroccan identity, transforming a fleeting visit into an enriching journey of discovery and profound cultural immersion. This article explores how Moroccan museums embody and champion the principles of slow tourism, offering pathways to understanding that go far beyond the conventional tourist trail.

Embracing the Philosophy of Slow Tourism in Morocco

Slow tourism is more than just a relaxed travel pace; it's a mindful methodology that prioritizes quality over quantity, authenticity over superficiality, and connection over consumption. In the context of Moroccan travel, this means moving beyond a checklist of famous sights to truly engage with the local rhythm of life, understanding the intricate layers of history, and appreciating the nuances of cultural expression. Moroccan museums are uniquely positioned to facilitate this deep dive. They offer sanctuary from the often-overwhelming pace of modern travel, inviting visitors to linger, observe, and absorb. Instead of rushing through exhibits, slow tourists are encouraged to spend hours in a single wing, contemplating the craftsmanship of an ancient textile, deciphering the symbolism in a piece of jewelry, or listening to the stories embedded within historical documents. This unhurried exploration allows for a more profound connection with the artifacts and the narratives they represent, fostering a sense of respect and understanding for Morocco's enduring legacy, a stark contrast to the fleeting snapshots often sought by mass tourism. The deliberate design of many Moroccan museums, with their serene courtyards and contemplative spaces, further enhances this reflective experience, making them ideal settings for the slow traveler.

Museums as Portals to Authentic Community Engagement

One of the core tenets of slow tourism is fostering genuine connections with local communities, moving beyond transactional exchanges to meaningful interactions. Moroccan museums often serve as vital bridges between visitors and the communities whose heritage they preserve and present. Many institutions are deeply embedded within their local neighborhoods, collaborating with artisans, historians, and storytellers from the immediate vicinity. For instance, a museum showcasing traditional Berber rugs might host workshops led by local weavers, or a historical site could offer guided tours delivered by descendants of the very communities whose lives are depicted. These interactions provide invaluable insights into contemporary Moroccan life, offering perspectives that guidebooks simply cannot capture. By supporting these museum initiatives, slow tourists contribute directly to the economic well-being and cultural continuity of these communities, ensuring that traditional skills and narratives are not only preserved but also celebrated and shared. This participatory approach transforms the museum visit from a passive observation into an active dialogue, enriching both the traveler's experience and the local community's sense of cultural pride.

The Unhurried Narrative: Deep Dive into Moroccan History

Morocco's history is a rich tapestry woven from diverse threads of Amazigh, Roman, Islamic, Andalusian, and European influences. Rushing through this complex narrative risks missing its intricate patterns and profound lessons. Slow tourism encourages an unhurried exploration of history, allowing visitors to trace chronological developments, understand cultural convergences, and appreciate the resilience of Moroccan identity through millennia. Moroccan museums excel at presenting these narratives with depth and context. Imagine spending an entire afternoon in a history museum, not just glancing at artifacts, but truly reading the interpretive panels, watching documentary excerpts, and engaging with multimedia presentations that bring historical figures and events to life. This deliberate pace allows for critical reflection on the socio-political landscapes of different eras, the evolution of artistic styles, and the enduring legacies of past civilizations on modern Morocco. From the sophisticated urban planning of ancient Fes to the imperial grandeur of Meknes, museums provide the detailed backstory necessary for a truly informed and appreciative understanding, allowing visitors to connect with the human stories behind the dates and names, fostering a sense of empathy and historical perspective that cannot be rushed.

Beyond the Exhibit: Immersive Workshops and Experiential Learning

True cultural immersion goes beyond viewing artifacts; it involves actively participating in and understanding the processes that create them. Moroccan museums increasingly embrace experiential learning, offering a diverse array of workshops and demonstrations that align perfectly with the slow tourism ethos. These hands-on activities invite visitors to slow down, learn a new skill, and appreciate the intricate craftsmanship behind Moroccan art and culture. For example, a museum dedicated to Moroccan textiles might offer workshops on natural dyeing or traditional embroidery techniques, allowing participants to experience the patience and precision required. Culinary museums or cultural centers often host cooking classes where visitors can learn to prepare authentic Moroccan dishes, connecting them directly with the country's gastronomic heritage. Such experiences provide a unique opportunity for creative engagement, fostering a deeper respect for the artisans and their invaluable knowledge passed down through generations. This active involvement transforms the visitor from a passive observer into an engaged participant, creating lasting memories and a tangible connection to Moroccan traditions, moving beyond simple sightseeing to genuine cultural practice.

Cultivating Cultural Diplomacy through Mindful Engagement

Museums are powerful platforms for cultural diplomacy, fostering understanding and respect between different cultures. When approached through the lens of slow tourism, Moroccan museums become even more effective in this role. By encouraging visitors to spend significant time engaging with exhibits and interpretive materials, these institutions facilitate a nuanced appreciation of Morocco's global contributions and its unique position at the crossroads of civilizations. This deliberate engagement allows visitors to move beyond stereotypes, discovering the richness and complexity of Moroccan identity, history, and contemporary society. Museums showcase how Moroccan culture has interacted with, influenced, and been influenced by various global currents, from ancient trade routes to modern artistic movements. This slow, mindful exploration of cultural narratives helps build bridges of understanding, promoting empathy and cross-cultural dialogue. Visitors leave not just with facts, but with a deeper emotional connection and an informed perspective, becoming informal ambassadors for Moroccan culture and promoting a more peaceful and interconnected global community through shared heritage.

Sustainable Heritage: Promoting Long-Term Preservation Through Deliberate Discovery

Slow tourism is inherently linked to sustainability, advocating for practices that minimize environmental impact and maximize benefits to local communities while preserving cultural heritage for future generations. Moroccan museums play a crucial role in this sustainable approach by offering a form of tourism that directly contributes to the preservation of cultural assets. When visitors engage deeply and thoughtfully with museum collections, they develop a greater appreciation for the value of these artifacts and the need for their long-term protection. The revenue generated through admissions, gift shop purchases, and workshop fees directly supports museum operations, including conservation efforts, research, and educational programs. By opting for a slow, museum-centric itinerary, travelers consciously choose experiences that are less resource-intensive than mass tourism, often supporting local artisans and small businesses in the process. This deliberate discovery fosters a sense of stewardship, transforming tourists into advocates for heritage preservation, ensuring that Morocco's cultural treasures remain vibrant and accessible for both local populations and future international visitors, embodying a truly responsible and enriching travel paradigm.

The Museum as a Space for Personal Reflection and Introspection

In a world saturated with fleeting digital content and rapid-fire information, the philosophy of slow tourism encourages moments of pause and personal reflection. Moroccan museums, with their often serene and aesthetically rich environments, provide ideal spaces for introspection. Walking through a quiet gallery, contemplating an ancient artifact, or sitting in a peaceful courtyard allows visitors to disconnect from external distractions and connect with their inner thoughts and emotions. This mindful engagement can be a deeply personal journey, where the historical and artistic narratives on display resonate with individual experiences and perspectives. The absence of hurried schedules permits time for journal writing, sketching, or simply quiet contemplation, transforming the museum visit into a form of meditation. Such moments of personal connection deepen the cultural immersion, as visitors not only learn about Morocco but also reflect on their own relationship with history, art, and the human condition. This introspective dimension elevates the museum experience from mere observation to a profound personal encounter, fostering self-awareness alongside cultural understanding.

Crafting Deeper Narratives: Museums as Storytellers of Complex Realities

Moroccan museums are not just repositories of objects; they are expert storytellers, weaving complex narratives that reflect the multifaceted realities of the nation's past and present. The philosophy of slow tourism encourages visitors to truly listen to these stories, to delve into the nuances, and to appreciate the multiple perspectives presented. Instead of seeking simple answers, slow travelers engage with the layered meanings embedded within each exhibit. Museums often present themes that challenge preconceptions, provoke thought, and reveal the often-overlooked aspects of Moroccan society, from the struggles of historical figures to the resilience of communities. This deliberate engagement allows for a more comprehensive understanding of Morocco's cultural identity, recognizing its complexities, contradictions, and continuous evolution. By presenting these rich, detailed narratives in an accessible yet profound manner, museums empower visitors to form their own informed opinions and appreciate the depth of Moroccan heritage, moving beyond superficial portrayals to a truly insightful and empathetic understanding of the nation's soul.

The convergence of Moroccan museums and the philosophy of slow tourism offers an unparalleled pathway to deep cultural immersion. By inviting visitors to embrace a slower pace, engage meaningfully with communities, delve into rich historical narratives, participate in hands-on experiences, and reflect personally on their discoveries, museums elevate the travel experience beyond mere sightseeing. They transform a visit into a profound journey of learning, connection, and understanding, fostering a lasting appreciation for Morocco's vibrant heritage. As custodians of culture and catalysts for conscious travel, Moroccan museums are indispensable guides for anyone seeking to truly connect with the heart and soul of this extraordinary nation, making every moment an opportunity for profound discovery and sustainable cultural appreciation.

The vibrant tapestry of Moroccan culture, preserved and presented within its diverse museums, owes much to the dedication of many individuals. Beyond the professional curators, conservators, and administrators, a vital, often unsung, force drives these institutions forward: volunteers. These committed individuals, drawn by a passion for heritage and a desire to contribute, play an indispensable role in enriching the visitor experience, supporting educational programs, and ensuring the smooth operation of cultural sites across the country. Their work is a testament to community engagement and a sustainable model for cultural preservation, embodying the spirit of collective ownership in safeguarding Morocco's invaluable artistic and historical legacy. This article delves into the multifaceted contributions of volunteers, highlighting how their unwavering commitment strengthens Moroccan museums and fosters deeper connections between cultural heritage and the public.

Bridging Resource Gaps and Augmenting Capacity

Many Moroccan museums, particularly smaller or regional institutions, often operate with limited budgets and staff. This is where volunteers become absolutely indispensable, acting as a crucial supplementary workforce that bridges significant resource gaps and augments the operational capacity of these cultural hubs. They contribute across various departments, from front-of-house operations like greeting visitors and providing information to back-of-house tasks such as assisting with collection management, inventory, and basic conservation efforts under professional supervision. Their presence allows professional staff to focus on specialized tasks, research, and high-level strategic planning, knowing that essential day-to-day functions are being competently managed. This collaborative model ensures that museums can sustain a broader range of activities and services than would otherwise be possible, ultimately enhancing their reach and impact within the community. The dedication of volunteers effectively extends the museum's human capital, enabling institutions to fulfill their mission of preservation, education, and engagement more comprehensively and efficiently, fostering a more robust and resilient cultural sector in Morocco.

Enhancing the Visitor Journey and Personalizing Engagement

Volunteers are often the first point of contact for visitors, making their role crucial in shaping the overall museum experience. They serve as friendly faces, offering warm welcomes, guiding visitors through exhibits, and providing contextual information that may not be readily available on display panels. Unlike audio guides or static signage, volunteers offer a personalized touch, capable of answering spontaneous questions, engaging in discussions, and adapting their explanations to the visitor's interests and level of understanding. This human element transforms a passive viewing experience into an interactive and memorable journey, fostering a deeper connection with the artifacts and narratives presented. By sharing personal anecdotes, local insights, and a genuine enthusiasm for the heritage, volunteers can ignite curiosity and passion in visitors of all ages, from international tourists seeking cultural immersion to local families discovering their own history. Their ability to provide individualized attention significantly elevates the quality of the visit, making each interaction a unique and enriching encounter that encourages repeat visits and positive word-of-mouth recommendations, further supporting sustainable tourism initiatives for these vital cultural institutions.

Fostering Community Connections and Inclusive Outreach

One of the most profound impacts of museum volunteers lies in their capacity to foster strong community connections and facilitate inclusive outreach programs. As members of the local community themselves, volunteers often serve as cultural ambassadors, bridging the gap between the museum and diverse segments of the population. They possess invaluable local knowledge, understand community needs, and can communicate the relevance of the museum's collections and activities in a relatable manner. This enables museums to reach audiences that might traditionally feel disconnected from cultural institutions, including schools, local associations, and marginalized groups. Volunteers assist in organizing and promoting community-focused events, workshops, and educational initiatives, ensuring that these programs are accessible and resonant with the target demographic. By actively engaging with community members, they help demystify the museum environment, making it a welcoming and inclusive space for everyone. This grassroots engagement is vital for building a sense of collective ownership over cultural heritage, strengthening social cohesion, and ensuring that Moroccan museums truly serve as vibrant cultural centers for all citizens, moving beyond being mere repositories of objects to become dynamic community assets.

Supporting Preservation Efforts and Collection Management

While professional conservators and registrars bear the primary responsibility for the long-term care of collections, volunteers often provide essential support that underpins these critical preservation efforts. Their contributions, though sometimes less visible, are fundamental to maintaining the integrity and accessibility of museum artifacts. Volunteers assist with tasks such as careful handling and rehousing of objects, conducting preliminary inventories, cataloging new acquisitions, and even basic dusting and cleaning of display cases and storage areas. They may help organize library resources within the museum, document visitor feedback crucial for future planning, or assist with environmental monitoring to ensure stable conditions for delicate objects. Under proper supervision and training, volunteers can also contribute to preventative conservation by identifying potential risks or damage, allowing professional staff to intervene promptly. This meticulous, often time-consuming, work frees up specialized staff to focus on complex conservation treatments and research, ensuring that Morocco's rich cultural heritage is meticulously preserved for future generations. Their dedication to these detailed tasks is a testament to their commitment to safeguarding the tangible legacy of the nation, reinforcing the museum's role as a steward of history.

Delivering Educational Programs and Workshops

Volunteers play a pivotal role in the delivery and expansion of educational programs within Moroccan museums, acting as facilitators and guides for various learning initiatives. They are often instrumental in supporting school visits, leading interactive tours for children, and assisting educators with hands-on workshops that bring history and culture to life. Their presence allows museums to cater to larger groups and offer a more personalized educational experience, ensuring that young minds and adult learners alike can engage deeply with the exhibits. Volunteers might help prepare materials for art classes inspired by traditional Moroccan crafts, guide participants through historical reenactments, or assist with language exchange programs within the museum context. Their enthusiasm and ability to connect with diverse audiences are invaluable in making learning enjoyable and accessible. By contributing to these educational endeavors, volunteers help cultivate a new generation of culture enthusiasts, foster critical thinking skills, and promote a deeper understanding and appreciation of Morocco's rich heritage, directly contributing to the museum's core mission of public enlightenment and cultural transmission.

Facilitating Special Exhibitions and Cultural Events

The dynamic calendar of Moroccan museums frequently features special exhibitions, cultural festivals, and community events that require considerable logistical support and human resources. Volunteers are crucial in making these temporary initiatives successful, often forming the backbone of event teams. They assist with everything from setting up exhibition spaces, distributing promotional materials, and managing guest registration to providing directional assistance and general event support during opening nights, workshops, and lectures. For major cultural festivals or international collaborations hosted by museums, volunteers often act as essential liaisons, helping to coordinate activities, manage crowds, and ensure a smooth experience for all attendees. Their flexibility and willingness to contribute to varied tasks allow museums to undertake more ambitious and diverse programming, enriching the cultural landscape of Morocco. By helping to execute these special initiatives, volunteers not only contribute to the visibility and reputation of the museum but also help create vibrant platforms for cultural exchange, artistic expression, and community celebration, making heritage accessible and engaging in fresh and innovative ways.

Promoting Sustainable Tourism through Informed Engagement

In the broader context of sustainable museum tourism, volunteers serve as powerful advocates and facilitators. By offering personalized, informed interactions, they enhance the quality of the visitor experience, encouraging a deeper, more respectful engagement with Moroccan culture. Unlike fleeting commercial tours, volunteer-led interactions often provide authentic insights into local traditions, historical contexts, and the significance of artifacts, fostering a more meaningful cultural immersion. They can highlight the importance of responsible tourism practices, from respecting cultural sites to supporting local craftsmanship, thereby aligning the museum experience with broader sustainability goals. Volunteers also contribute by collecting visitor feedback, which helps museums refine their offerings to meet tourist expectations while adhering to ethical principles. Their dedication to sharing knowledge and promoting cultural understanding encourages visitors to spend more time in museums, appreciate the nuances of Moroccan heritage, and potentially explore other cultural sites, contributing positively to local economies and fostering a long-term appreciation for the country's cultural assets, rather than just superficial consumption.

Personal Growth and Skill Development for Volunteers

Beyond the direct benefits to the museums, volunteering offers significant opportunities for personal growth, skill development, and community integration for the volunteers themselves. Individuals gain valuable hands-on experience in a cultural institution, learning about museum operations, collection management, public engagement, and event coordination. This experience can be particularly beneficial for students pursuing careers in cultural heritage, tourism, or education, providing practical insights and networking opportunities. Furthermore, volunteering enhances communication skills, problem-solving abilities, and teamwork capabilities, all of which are transferable to various aspects of life and professional endeavors. For retired professionals, it offers a chance to remain active, share their knowledge, and contribute meaningfully to society. The act of volunteering also fosters a strong sense of community belonging and civic pride, allowing individuals to feel directly connected to the preservation and promotion of their national heritage. This symbiotic relationship, where volunteers give their time and passion while receiving personal enrichment, reinforces the value of community-led initiatives in the cultural sector.

The role of volunteers in Moroccan museums is undeniably multifaceted and profoundly impactful. From bridging essential resource gaps and enhancing the visitor experience with personalized engagement to actively supporting preservation efforts and fostering deep community connections, their contributions are integral to the vitality and sustainability of these cultural institutions. They serve as passionate ambassadors, educators, and invaluable support staff, ensuring that Morocco's rich tapestry of history, art, and traditions remains accessible, understood, and cherished by both local communities and international visitors. As Moroccan museums continue to evolve as dynamic centers for cultural dialogue and sustainable tourism, the unwavering dedication of their volunteers will remain an indispensable cornerstone, shaping a future where heritage is not just preserved but actively celebrated and shared by all.